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Domain > www.comptiaexamprep.com
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Date
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2025-11-07
64.233.169.121
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2026-02-11
173.194.202.121
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Port 80
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} /script>div idnavbar-iframe-container>/div>script typetext/javascript srchttps://apis.google.com/js/platform.js>/script>script typetext/javascript> gapi.load(gapi.iframes:gapi.iframes.style.bubble, function() { if (gapi.iframes && gapi.iframes.getContext) { gapi.iframes.getContext().openChild({ url: https://www.blogger.com/navbar/3311861741042666555?origin\x3dhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com, where: document.getElementById(navbar-iframe-container), id: navbar-iframe }); } }); /script>script typetext/javascript>(function() {var script document.createElement(script);script.type text/javascript;script.src //pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/google_top_exp.js;var head document.getElementsByTagName(head)0;if (head) {head.appendChild(script);}})();/script>/div>/div>div itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Blog styledisplay: none;>meta content CompTIA Exam Prep - ITF+, A+, Network+, Security+, CySA+ itempropname/>/div>div classbody-fauxcolumns>div classfauxcolumn-outer body-fauxcolumn-outer>div classcap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right>/div>div classfauxcolumn-inner>/div>/div>div classcap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>/div>div classcontent>div classcontent-fauxcolumns>div classfauxcolumn-outer content-fauxcolumn-outer>div classcap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right>/div>div classfauxcolumn-inner>/div>/div>div classcap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>/div>div classcontent-outer>div classcontent-cap-top cap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left content-fauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right content-fauxborder-right>/div>div classcontent-inner>header>div classheader-outer>div classheader-cap-top cap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left header-fauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right header-fauxborder-right>/div>div classregion-inner header-inner>div classheader section idheader nameHeader>div classwidget Header data-version1 idHeader1>div idheader-inner>div classtitlewrapper>h1 classtitle> CompTIA Exam Prep - ITF+, A+, Network+, Security+, CySA+/h1>/div>div classdescriptionwrapper>p classdescription>span>This blog is here to help those preparing for CompTIA exams. This is designed to help the exam candidate to understand the concepts, rather than trust a brain dump. CHECK OUT THE BLOG INDEXES!!!/span>/p>/div>/div>/div>/div>/div>/div>div classheader-cap-bottom cap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>/header>div classtabs-outer>div classtabs-cap-top cap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left tabs-fauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right tabs-fauxborder-right>/div>div classregion-inner tabs-inner>div classtabs section idcrosscol nameCross-Column>div classwidget Image data-version1 idImage1>h2>CompTIA Security+ Exam Notes/h2>div classwidget-content>img altCompTIA Security+ Exam Notes height319 idImage1_img srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWSLWMt8lDlnZFSxi05YpLD5LDay9dGZXrzjjZbG8glBi6Ro4VZvIlFdxjR1o1uP4E-Oiq1GrDdAMJIOMxxo-fPynf4cSK_B6IvUGW3GUmlWHqQ2EzHjuSY96pQ0QFmM3fjGtK39MIUu9c/s653/01-Comp-IA-Security-SY0-501.webp width653/>br/>span classcaption>Let Us Help You Pass/span>/div>div classclear>/div>/div>/div>div classtabs no-items section idcrosscol-overflow nameCross-Column 2>/div>/div>/div>div classtabs-cap-bottom cap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>div classmain-outer>div classmain-cap-top cap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left main-fauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right main-fauxborder-right>/div>div classregion-inner main-inner>div classcolumns fauxcolumns>div classfauxcolumn-outer fauxcolumn-center-outer>div classcap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right>/div>div classfauxcolumn-inner>/div>/div>div classcap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>div classfauxcolumn-outer fauxcolumn-left-outer>div classcap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right>/div>div classfauxcolumn-inner>/div>/div>div classcap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>div classfauxcolumn-outer fauxcolumn-right-outer>div classcap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right>/div>div classfauxcolumn-inner>/div>/div>div classcap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>!-- corrects IE6 width calculation -->div classcolumns-inner>div classcolumn-center-outer>div classcolumn-center-inner>div classmain section idmain nameMain>div classwidget Blog data-version1 idBlog1>div classblog-posts hfeed> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Wednesday, February 11, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content3272552191415976054 itemproppostId/>a name3272552191415976054>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/inside-lsass-dumping-defenders-guide-to.html>Inside LSASS Dumping: A Defender’s Guide to Protecting Windows Credentials/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-3272552191415976054 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What is LSASS and “LSASS dumping”?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LSASS (Local Security Authority Subsystem Service) is the Windows process that enforces local security policy and manages authentication. After a user logs on, credential material (e.g., NTLM password hashes, Kerberos tickets, and, in some configurations, plaintext) resides in LSASS memory for the session. LSASS dumping is the act of extracting that in‑memory credential material (typically after an attacker already has admin/SYSTEM privileges) to facilitate account impersonation, privilege escalation, and lateral movement. /span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Why attackers target LSASS/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>High payoff:/b> A single host may contain credentials for privileged users (e.g., domain admins), enabling rapid lateral movement and full domain compromise. /span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Pervasive technique: /b>LSASS dumping is among the most prevalent credential‑access techniques seen across APT and cybercrime operations, including ransomware campaigns./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Windows internals:/b> Because LSASS legitimately stores authentication artifacts during normal operation, an attacker with sufficient privileges can attempt to extract them unless the host is hardened./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Common approaches (high‑level only)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Attackers can attempt in‑memory access to LSASS or create memory dumps for offline parsing with credential‑theft utilities. Variants include abusing signed/LOLBAS binaries (living‑off‑the‑land), leveraging error‑reporting paths, or deploying custom tooling to evade EDR. (Deliberately omitting command‑level detail.)/span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Operational prerequisites for an attacker/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Local admin/SYSTEM privileges are typically required to read LSASS memory, so LSASS dumping is usually a post‑compromise technique./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Misconfigurations (e.g., legacy WDigest settings that allow plaintext caching) can worsen the impact if present./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Detection: what to watch for/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Aim to detect both attempted access to LSASS and the downstream use of stolen material./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Process and handle‑access telemetry/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Alerts when non‑system processes open LSASS with suspicious access rights (e.g., memory‑read/duplicate handle). Modern EDRs and Sysmon telemetry are key here./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Anomalous child processes / LOLBAS abuse/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Signed Windows binaries or admin tools unexpectedly interacting with LSASS (e.g., “living‑off‑the‑land” patterns)./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Dump‑artifact forensics/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Appearance of crash/dump files in temp or system folders, or unusual Windows Error Reporting activity tied to LSASS./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Post‑dump behavior/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Sudden spikes in Kerberos ticket requests, pass‑the‑hash attempts, or lateral RDP/SMB authentication using previously unseen accounts or workstations./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Microsoft reports that modern endpoint solutions (e.g., Defender for Endpoint) include attack-surface reduction (ASR) rules and detections specifically designed to block or alert on LSASS credential theft, with demonstrated effectiveness in independent tests./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Mitigation: harden, limit, and monitor/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Goal: /b>Make LSASS hard to access, reduce the value of what’s inside it, and ensure attempts are noisy./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>1. Enable LSASS protection features/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>LSA Protection / RunAsPPL (Protected Process Light): /b>Launches LSASS as a protected process, allowing only trusted, signed code with appropriate privileges to interact with it. microsoft.com/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Credential Guard: /b>Uses virtualization‑based security (VBS) to isolate derived credentials, preventing many in‑memory theft scenarios. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Apply Attack Surface Reduction (ASR) and EDR controls/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Use ASR rules to block credential stealing from LSASS, and ensure EDR policies alert on suspicious handle access and dump patterns. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Reduce credential exposure/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Disable/avoid WDigest plaintext credential caching where possible; ensure modern auth packages and patches are in place./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prefer Kerberos and constrained delegation; avoid unnecessary credential caching on servers that host many privileged logons./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Least privilege & endpoint hygiene/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Minimize local admin rights; use Privileged Access Workstations (PAWs) and Just‑Enough/Just‑In‑Time Administration to limit where high‑value credentials ever land. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>5. Memory‑dump and handle‑access controls/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Remove “Debug programs” rights from standard administrators; restrict who can create process dumps; monitor/alert on dump‑tool invocation and WerFault anomalies./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>6. Network & identity protections/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Detect reuse of stolen credentials (pass‑the‑hash/ticket) via anomalous authentication patterns and enforce MFA where feasible to blunt the theft value./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Incident response: if LSASS dumping is suspected/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Isolate the endpoint/b> from the network to stop lateral movement./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Acquire volatile evidence /b>(carefully, to avoid destroying forensics) and collect EDR/Sysmon logs around the time of suspected access./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Hunt for credential reuse/b> across the domain (failed logons, unusual source hosts, ticket anomalies)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Rotate sensitive credentials/b> (admin/service accounts), re‑issue Kerberos tickets (e.g., KRB TGT resets per policy), and reimage if necessary./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Retrospective detection:/b> Search for the same TTPs fleet‑wide; many attackers execute this technique on multiple hosts./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Legal and ethical note/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Attempting to access LSASS memory on systems you do not own, or without explicit, written authorization, is illegal and unethical. All guidance here is intended solely to help defenders understand, detect, and mitigate this technique./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Quick FAQ/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Is LSASS dumping the same as pass‑the‑hash?/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>No. LSASS dumping is a collection technique (to obtain secrets). Pass‑the‑hash/ticket are use techniques that may follow./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Does enabling Credential Guard stop all LSASS dumping?/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>It significantly reduces exposure by isolating secrets, but you should still enable RunAsPPL, ASR, and robust EDR detection; defense‑in‑depth is essential./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Where else do Windows credentials live?/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Beyond LSASS memory, credentials/hashes can exist in the SAM, NTDS.dit (on DCs), LSA Secrets, cached domain credentials, and Credential Manager, each with its own risks and defenses. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/inside-lsass-dumping-defenders-guide-to.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/inside-lsass-dumping-defenders-guide-to.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-11T08:46:00-05:00>8:46 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/inside-lsass-dumping-defenders-guide-to.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div>div classinline-ad>script async srchttps://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?clientca-pub-9372303920595375&hostca-host-pub-1556223355139109 crossoriginanonymous>/script>!-- syo-501_main_Blog1_1x1_as -->ins classadsbygoogle styledisplay:block data-ad-clientca-pub-9372303920595375 data-ad-hostca-host-pub-1556223355139109 data-ad-slot8940545355 data-ad-formatauto data-full-width-responsivetrue>/ins>script>(adsbygoogle window.adsbygoogle || ).push({});/script>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Tuesday, February 10, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content2488857925771861582 itemproppostId/>a name2488857925771861582>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/disa-stigs-explained-structure.html>DISA STIGs Explained: Structure, Compliance, and Best Practices/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-2488857925771861582 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What Are STIGs?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Security Technical Implementation Guides (STIGs) are mandatory cybersecurity configuration standards developed by the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) for securing information systems within the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). They define how to harden operating systems, software, network devices, and other IT components to reduce vulnerabilities and ensure compliance with federal security requirements./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>These guides are published and maintained on the official DoD Cyber Exchange, where they serve as the authoritative source of DoD security configuration requirements./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Purpose of STIGs/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs exist to:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Harden systems/b> by defining secure configuration settings (e.g., permissions, services, encryption)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Reduce configuration‑based vulnerabilities/b> that attackers exploit./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Align systems with federal security frameworks/b>, such as NIST SP 800‑53 and the Risk Management Framework (RMF)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Support Authorization to Operate (ATO) /b>decisions within DoD environments./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs are mandated by DoD cybersecurity policy, meaning all DoD information systems must implement approved security configuration guidelines./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>What Do STIGs Contain?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A STIG is specific to a product and version and includes all security requirements applicable to that technology, as defined by DoD baselines./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Each STIG typically includes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Configuration requirements/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Technical settings (e.g., registry edits, service configurations)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Security controls mapped to NIST controls and CCIs/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Vulnerability severity categories (CAT I, CAT II, CAT III)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Verification and remediation instructions/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs cover a wide range of technologies, including:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Operating systems (Windows, Linux, UNIX)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Applications and middleware (web servers, databases)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Network devices (routers, switches, firewalls)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Mobile devices (smartphones, tablets)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>There are over 500 STIGs across all technology types./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Who Must Use STIGs?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIG compliance is mandatory for:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>DoD agencies/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Defense contractors/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Vendors handling DoD data/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizations connected to DoDIN (DoD Information Networks)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Many federal agencies and private companies also adopt STIGs as benchmarks for secure configuration, even when not required./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why STIGs Are Important/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs provide:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Enhanced Security/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They reduce the attack surface and protect systems from unauthorized access and cyberattacks./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Standardization/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They enforce consistent security settings across all systems and technologies./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>3. Regulatory Compliance/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They help meet requirements under DoD policies and federal security standards such as FISMA./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4. Risk Mitigation/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Hardening configurations significantly reduces vulnerability exposure./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>STIG Levels and Categories/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIG findings are categorized by severity:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>CAT I (Critical): Immediate risk; must be fixed urgently/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>CAT II (Medium): Weakens security posture/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>CAT III (Low): Enhances security but is not critical/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>(These categories are standard across DISA STIGs.)/span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs in DevSecOps and Modern DoD Environments/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>In modern b>DoD DevSecOps pipelines,/b> STIGs are applied continuously during development, testing, and deployment to ensure secure software delivery./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs are embedded in the b>DoD Enterprise DevSecOps Reference Design/b> and form part of secure-by-design software factories./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>STIG Compliance Process/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A typical compliance process includes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Identify applicable STIGs for the system/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Scan and assess current configurations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prioritize remediation based on severity and system impact/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Apply required settings/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Document compliance for audits and ATO/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Continuously monitor and update as new STIG releases appear/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Tools that support this include:/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>DISA STIG Viewer/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>SCAP Compliance Checker/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Anchore Enterprise/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Examples of STIG Use Cases/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Securing a Web Server/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Applying web server STIGs ensures strong permissions, disables unnecessary services, and hardens authentication settings./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Hardening Network Devices/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs guide secure configurations for routers, switches, and firewalls, improving access control and reducing vulnerabilities./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>In Summary/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs are highly detailed, mandatory DoD cybersecurity configuration guidelines that:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Define secure system configurations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reduce vulnerabilities and improve resilience/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Ensure compliance with federal and DoD policies/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Standardize cybersecurity across organizations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Support secure software development and operations/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Whether youre in government, defense contracting, or a private organization seeking strong security baselines, STIGs are a foundational tool for system hardening and risk reduction./span>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/disa-stigs-explained-structure.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/disa-stigs-explained-structure.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-10T08:00:00-05:00>8:00 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/disa-stigs-explained-structure.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Monday, February 9, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content8421145666776053987 itemproppostId/>a name8421145666776053987>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/capability-maturity-model-integration.html>Capability Maturity Model Integration Explained: Principles, Practices, and Real‑World Value/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-8421145666776053987 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What Is Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI)?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI)/b> is a comprehensive process improvement framework that organizations use to assess, develop, and optimize their capabilities across areas such as software engineering, systems engineering, service delivery, and product development. It helps organizations standardize processes, improve quality, reduce risk, and enhance performance./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) and is administered today by the CMMI Institute, a subsidiary of ISACA. It is widely used and even required in many U.S. government software contracts./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Core Principles of CMMI/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>According to SixSigma.us and CMMI guidance, CMMI is built around three foundational principles:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Process Standardization/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Measurement-Based Improvement/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizational Alignment/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>These ensure organizations establish consistent, repeatable, measurable processes./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI Structure: Components of the Model/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI is composed of several connected elements used to assess and improve processes:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Process Areas (PAs)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>These represent high‑level domains of organizational performance, such as:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Project Management/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Engineering/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Support/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Goals and Practices/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Each process area includes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Specific Goals (SG) and Specific Practices (SP) — unique to each area/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Generic Goals (GG) and Generic Practices (GP) — applied across all areas/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Work Products and Sub-Practices/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>These show evidence that a practice has been successfully implemented./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4. CMMI Representations/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizations can adopt CMMI in two ways:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Staged Representation:/span>/b>/li>ul>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Follows a fixed path of maturity levels/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Enables benchmarking of organizations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Used in formal CMMI appraisals/span>/li>/ul>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Continuous Representation:/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Focuses on improving individual process areas/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Allows more flexibility/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>The Five CMMI Maturity Levels/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI defines five maturity levels that describe the evolution of process capability in an organization:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Level 1 – Initial/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Processes are unpredictable, poorly controlled, and reactive./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Level 2 – Managed/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Processes are planned, documented, and managed at the project level./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Level 3 – Defined/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Processes are standardized and integrated across the entire organization./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Level 4 – Quantitatively Managed/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Processes are measured and controlled using quantitative data./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Level 5 – Optimizing/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Focus on continuous process improvement using innovative methods and root‑cause analysis./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI Constellations (Model Types)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Historically, CMMI offered three constellations:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI for Development (CMMI‑DEV)/b>/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI for Services (CMMI‑SVC)/b>/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI for Acquisition (CMMI‑ACQ)/b>/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>In CMMI Version 2.0, these were merged into a unified model./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Practice Areas in CMMI Version 3.0 (2023)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The latest model includes extensive Practice Areas (PAs) such as:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Configuration Management/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Data Quality/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Governance/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Incident Resolution/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizational Training/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Planning/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Objectives and Benefits of CMMI/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>According to GeeksforGeeks and SixSigma.us, CMMI helps organizations:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improve product and service quality/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Fulfill customer needs/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Enhance investor value/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Increase market competitiveness/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reduce risk across processes/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Organizations Implement CMMI/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizations adopt CMMI to:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Strengthen process discipline/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improve predictability of project outcomes/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reduce defects and cycle times/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Standardize practices across teams/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improve performance metrics and governance/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Support compliance with government or industry requirements/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI Appraisal and Certification/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizations undergo SCAMPI-style appraisals to achieve an official maturity level rating, enabling public recognition and government contracting eligibility./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Evolution and Version History/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Key versions:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI V1.3 (2010)/b> – widely used baseline model/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI V2.0 (2018) /b>– modernization and consolidation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI V3.0 (2023) /b>– latest release with expanded practice areas/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Summary/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI is a globally recognized framework that offers organizations a structured, measurable path to improve processes, enhance product quality, reduce risk, and achieve operational excellence across development, services, and acquisition functions. It provides both a roadmap and a benchmark for process maturity, making it one of the most widely used models in modern industry./span>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/capability-maturity-model-integration.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/capability-maturity-model-integration.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-09T08:38:00-05:00>8:38 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/capability-maturity-model-integration.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Sunday, February 8, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content7188042918148997666 itemproppostId/>a name7188042918148997666>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/large-language-models-explained.html>Large Language Models Explained: The Technology Behind Modern AI/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-7188042918148997666 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What Is a Large Language Model?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A Large Language Model (LLM) is an AI system designed to understand, generate, and manipulate human language. It learns patterns from massive amounts of text and uses probability to predict what words, and even ideas, should come next in a sentence./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Think of it like:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A super‑advanced autocomplete system that has learned from almost the entire internet, books, articles, and more./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Examples of LLMs include GPT‑4/5, Claude, LLaMA, Gemini, etc./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Key Components of a Large Language Model/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>i>1. A Transformer Architecture/i>/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Most modern LLMs use the Transformer architecture (developed by Google in 2017)./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Transformers introduced two key concepts:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>a. Attention Mechanism/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This allows the model to consider all words in a sentence simultaneously and determine which parts matter most./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Example:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>In the sentence “The cat that chased the mouse was hungry,”/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The word “was” refers to “cat”, not “mouse.”/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Attention helps the model understand that relationship./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>b. Parallel Processing/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Unlike older models, transformers process all words simultaneously, making training orders of magnitude faster./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Training on Massive Text Data/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The “large” in LLM refers to:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Large dataset/b> (web pages, books, code, etc.)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Large number of parameters /b>(weights)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>A large computation is needed for training/b>/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Modern LLMs may have tens or hundreds of billions of parameters./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>What are parameters?/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They’re numerical values the model adjusts during training, ike knobs on a huge control panel, to better predict the next word./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Tokens, Not Words/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLMs don’t read full words. They read tokens, which may be:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>A full word (“cat”)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>A partial word (“ing”)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Even punctuation/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This helps the model handle multiple languages, slang, and new words./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How LLMs Work (Step-by-Step)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Step 1: Input → Tokenization/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Your text is split into tokens./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Step 2: Embeddings/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Each token is converted into a mathematical vector (a list of numbers representing meaning)./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Step 3: Processing with Attention Layers/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The model looks at all tokens and computes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Context/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Relationships/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Meaning/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This happens across dozens or hundreds of layers./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Step 4: Prediction/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLM predicts the probability of each possible next token and chooses one./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Then it repeats this process, token by token, to generate full sentences./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How Are LLMs Trained?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>1. Pretraining (unsupervised learning)/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The model reads huge amounts of text and learns to predict missing or next tokens./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>It learns:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Grammar/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Facts/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reasoning patterns/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Writing styles/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Coding patterns/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Fine‑tuning/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>After pretraining, the model is adjusted for specific purposes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Chatting/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Coding/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Online safety/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Translation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Math/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Customer support/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Humans rank model outputs, and the model learns which responses humans prefer./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This makes the LLM:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>More helpful/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Less toxic/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>More aligned with human expectations/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>What Can LLMs Do?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLMs can:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Answer questions/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Summarize long documents/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Translate languages/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Write essays, emails, and articles/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Generate or explain code/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reason about problems/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Analyze data (with tools)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Their power comes from pattern recognition, not human understanding, but the patterns are so rich that the results feel intelligent./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>What LLMs Cannot Do (Important!)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLMs:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Do not understand the world like humans/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Do not have consciousness or beliefs/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>May hallucinate false information/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Can misinterpret ambiguous prompts/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Don’t access the internet unless specifically connected to a search tool/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Are LLMs a Big Deal?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLMs are transforming:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Work automation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Programming/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Education/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Research/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Creative industries/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Customer service/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Knowledge work in general/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/large-language-models-explained.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/large-language-models-explained.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-08T08:00:00-05:00>8:00 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/large-language-models-explained.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Saturday, February 7, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta contenthttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcEDIayqOWpTJikKr6MceIJfiasyVc4FEgAVK0Stmh9g44HwPJ_QzJPesSCM8nasVrVVvu1SxWk1V-zFogjIjXedRtxtmGlS40ChyphenhyphenSp4C6RXYv90p8r0hUPkSFiKRZog5rf6zaGFR2NO2akmdczCopz-5tz_IER2_CyiMh8EGZqPIPccuePoE4VF3NdYR0/w548-h104/PQ1.PNG itempropimage_url/>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content1604745994327931250 itemproppostId/>a name1604745994327931250>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/parameterized-queries-explained.html>Parameterized Queries Explained: Preventing SQL Injection the Right Way/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-1604745994327931250 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What are parameterized queries?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Parameterized queries (a.k.a. prepared statements with bound parameters) are SQL statements where data values are kept separate from the SQL code. Instead of concatenating user input into a query string, you write the SQL with placeholders and pass the actual values as parameters. The database driver sends the SQL and the parameter values to the database separately (or in distinct protocol messages), so the values are never interpreted as SQL code./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Why this matters:/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prevents SQL injection by design, because user input can’t change the query’s structure./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improves performance (often) via plan caching / server‑side prepared plans./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improves correctness & type safety: parameters are strongly typed and validated by the driver/DB./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Enables batching/bulk operations efficiently./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>How they work (conceptual flow)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Most drivers/databases follow a variant ofb> Parse → Bind → Execute:/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Prepare/Parse:/b> The database parses the SQL with placeholders (e.g., SELECT … WHERE id ?), validates syntax, and (optionally) creates/ caches an execution plan./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Bind: /b>Your program provides parameter values (e.g., id 42). The driver encodes them with their types (e.g., integer, text)./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>3. Execute: /b>The DB executes the already‑parsed plan with those bound values./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Placeholders differ by driver/DB:/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>? — JDBC, ODBC, SQLite, MySQL (client libs), etc./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>$1, $2, … — PostgreSQL (libpq, many drivers)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>@name — SQL Server (ADO.NET), some other drivers./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>:name — Oracle, many ORMs./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>The unsafe way (for contrast)/b>/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcEDIayqOWpTJikKr6MceIJfiasyVc4FEgAVK0Stmh9g44HwPJ_QzJPesSCM8nasVrVVvu1SxWk1V-zFogjIjXedRtxtmGlS40ChyphenhyphenSp4C6RXYv90p8r0hUPkSFiKRZog5rf6zaGFR2NO2akmdczCopz-5tz_IER2_CyiMh8EGZqPIPccuePoE4VF3NdYR0/s743/PQ1.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height141 data-original-width743 height104 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcEDIayqOWpTJikKr6MceIJfiasyVc4FEgAVK0Stmh9g44HwPJ_QzJPesSCM8nasVrVVvu1SxWk1V-zFogjIjXedRtxtmGlS40ChyphenhyphenSp4C6RXYv90p8r0hUPkSFiKRZog5rf6zaGFR2NO2akmdczCopz-5tz_IER2_CyiMh8EGZqPIPccuePoE4VF3NdYR0/w548-h104/PQ1.PNG width548 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The user‑supplied text is part of the SQL, so malicious characters can break out of the string and alter the query structure./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>The safe way (parameterized)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>i>Python + PostgreSQL (psycopg2)/i>/b>/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlTPELnYg4BlA2jA0-5g-JUNB7UJopfpHU7Kk-KvzbHVcDfi69Bgap2k3f9s5X_vtJxiCrcln0fNoNayMrOqrj25mmBL6Ofq45k0ufhqqsuj9RRWrWhXM-QwwUkv0mMtiUosYCXy7GEWkWJOIJszbBWNkK902o8jRA73lcKubQm3MVxn1txRqIhqwrm4pN/s743/PQ2.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height222 data-original-width743 height166 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlTPELnYg4BlA2jA0-5g-JUNB7UJopfpHU7Kk-KvzbHVcDfi69Bgap2k3f9s5X_vtJxiCrcln0fNoNayMrOqrj25mmBL6Ofq45k0ufhqqsuj9RRWrWhXM-QwwUkv0mMtiUosYCXy7GEWkWJOIJszbBWNkK902o8jRA73lcKubQm3MVxn1txRqIhqwrm4pN/w554-h166/PQ2.PNG width554 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Node.js + PostgreSQL (pg)/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh58qqzZ8ccEiE1Je2YgAt75cEj9eDBMPpjcORKL6otZlqePKF5u2T5Z0Rx5LIIygBF2JmXjZ6wFrbMYrZ_u9kLy7Vq2zDGkaluknehrxQEDhrYCQPtaNkNKqo9wjOGt6ogiccSBKCzVn6xFzQuRGhRJMBRBNClBFXVp6woWh6bm0sXftOK434awPuJ2TCR/s737/pq3.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height184 data-original-width737 height139 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh58qqzZ8ccEiE1Je2YgAt75cEj9eDBMPpjcORKL6otZlqePKF5u2T5Z0Rx5LIIygBF2JmXjZ6wFrbMYrZ_u9kLy7Vq2zDGkaluknehrxQEDhrYCQPtaNkNKqo9wjOGt6ogiccSBKCzVn6xFzQuRGhRJMBRBNClBFXVp6woWh6bm0sXftOK434awPuJ2TCR/w555-h139/pq3.PNG width555 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>C# + SQL Server (ADO.NET)/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbl6GxqfyOgbJ6RXq6CA31IcCiQIJ8ryZpeSLynRwU6NlzA3yiZ0bqr73kc-e_vJ64F-aBOe_0qSuiX1gvq5VkQ_DuIwEg513g_NYoSCqFhMSW5iJ4F5dLIzYcn1JKpoAx7xtykoujaKrB5ucWn7WwTUtxlJ54yENDsLxEdtgO9PR-X0gwbPyueHu5AgpK/s737/PQ4.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height241 data-original-width737 height186 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbl6GxqfyOgbJ6RXq6CA31IcCiQIJ8ryZpeSLynRwU6NlzA3yiZ0bqr73kc-e_vJ64F-aBOe_0qSuiX1gvq5VkQ_DuIwEg513g_NYoSCqFhMSW5iJ4F5dLIzYcn1JKpoAx7xtykoujaKrB5ucWn7WwTUtxlJ54yENDsLxEdtgO9PR-X0gwbPyueHu5AgpK/w566-h186/PQ4.PNG width566 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Java + JDBC/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz1eOsJqH8Iz4refsiFlkPzkm9eQgkYtCldONVJoyB9D7eUITGDen64zOBBmK5VdGYUu3QDDlXTMhE8uKCYWjNxeHrMAL-LZqKJEq8gBVlxPgPDH3eMxVMNGjFFVGevgFXhWJbTEBU-TXCMnR-ySmoIhdwFK8ELrOSOBl7GFhBV8LV0kAUflclLZGgYC_C/s735/PQ5.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height218 data-original-width735 height170 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz1eOsJqH8Iz4refsiFlkPzkm9eQgkYtCldONVJoyB9D7eUITGDen64zOBBmK5VdGYUu3QDDlXTMhE8uKCYWjNxeHrMAL-LZqKJEq8gBVlxPgPDH3eMxVMNGjFFVGevgFXhWJbTEBU-TXCMnR-ySmoIhdwFK8ELrOSOBl7GFhBV8LV0kAUflclLZGgYC_C/w574-h170/PQ5.PNG width574 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>PHP + PDO (for completeness)/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDhxw14Xu4hnwy4Go7lZq_RBb1vydGC0biFfdf38uSgqwZFKEPPbTFu-uOQhu0jgk5zrhRWqs-E21VjWFhQj56P3RSmnBgsMXh3MSwGmjd4qN-BjHvmSdQNwJem12KTtRsRdJXTTzWZjhyphenhyphenQdUs7woXVroFt_72EbafP0K8nPaPF9EOjKWoev4Udauctv89/s732/PQ6.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height103 data-original-width732 height81 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDhxw14Xu4hnwy4Go7lZq_RBb1vydGC0biFfdf38uSgqwZFKEPPbTFu-uOQhu0jgk5zrhRWqs-E21VjWFhQj56P3RSmnBgsMXh3MSwGmjd4qN-BjHvmSdQNwJem12KTtRsRdJXTTzWZjhyphenhyphenQdUs7woXVroFt_72EbafP0K8nPaPF9EOjKWoev4Udauctv89/w578-h81/PQ6.PNG width578 />/a>/div>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Parameter styles at a glance/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Positional (?): /b>order matters; common in JDBC/ODBC/MySQL/SQLite./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Dollar‑positional ($1): /b>common in PostgreSQL drivers./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Named (@p, :name):/b> common in SQL Server/Oracle/various ORMs; improves readability./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Performance notes/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Server‑side prepared statements can reuse the parsed plan across executions, reducing CPU overhead on the DB./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reusing a prepared statement inside loops (e.g., bulk inserts) can yield significant throughput gains./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Some drivers auto‑prepare after N executions; others require you to opt in (e.g., prepare / PREPARE)./span>/li>ul>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Caveat: /b>In certain DBs (notably PostgreSQL), parameterized plans can sometimes yield suboptimal plans when data distributions are skewed, because the planner sees parameters rather than constants. b>Techniques: /b>auto_explain, prepared_statement_cache, or leaving a query unprepared if it’s highly selective and rarely repeated./span>/li>/ul>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Common pitfalls & how to handle them/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1) Dynamic SQL structure (table/column names)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Parameters can only replace values, not SQL identifiers (table/column names) or keywords./span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Do:/b> Use a whitelist (allow‑list) and interpolate validated identifiers yourself./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Don’t:/b> Concatenate unchecked user input into identifiers./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTjp2QZfCanyQHtYmldIlqSettc_ij2WjNO_n6KEB_kqWsPUr3WXH6PIZhDE_LcHwzsquMlC5SMSDu8BRr_tTfTRwc92ZzoIkDfhaOvewVHjpS00QJyHhrUlY0fG_ldqnkDsa5n-dq-Gq35KbaslOCgOIX1bUcenASgZJUqapRUe47Vyhy9a-To7LqKsxR/s736/PQ7.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height192 data-original-width736 height145 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTjp2QZfCanyQHtYmldIlqSettc_ij2WjNO_n6KEB_kqWsPUr3WXH6PIZhDE_LcHwzsquMlC5SMSDu8BRr_tTfTRwc92ZzoIkDfhaOvewVHjpS00QJyHhrUlY0fG_ldqnkDsa5n-dq-Gq35KbaslOCgOIX1bUcenASgZJUqapRUe47Vyhy9a-To7LqKsxR/w561-h145/PQ7.PNG width561 />/a>/div>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2) IN lists/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>You can’t pass a single parameter as an entire IN (...) list in many drivers. Use:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Array parameters (PostgreSQL):/b> WHERE id ANY($1::int)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Programmatically expand placeholders:/b> WHERE id IN (?, ?, ?) (and bind 3 values)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhokKZfbmxgD7xtWuEKdibzNWT621ZbA1o5gTRaKjAi3N6cDAtYtCEDYm6D0R6cbqqJqqtr7zyFoLuds9wTqd87S9uTqaFinChNxnDe5ens9xGQG6dv3_Boy-V8WfcLhI91wu5-sH8tIReDOEIgqtfIeYUZ0A_jyTI-WmF6jcfCszRQ-KknjSi3DVoo-zOm/s744/PQ8.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height119 data-original-width744 height88 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhokKZfbmxgD7xtWuEKdibzNWT621ZbA1o5gTRaKjAi3N6cDAtYtCEDYm6D0R6cbqqJqqtr7zyFoLuds9wTqd87S9uTqaFinChNxnDe5ens9xGQG6dv3_Boy-V8WfcLhI91wu5-sH8tIReDOEIgqtfIeYUZ0A_jyTI-WmF6jcfCszRQ-KknjSi3DVoo-zOm/w556-h88/PQ8.PNG width556 />/a>/div>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3) LIKE patterns/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>If you need wildcards, build the pattern in code but still bind it:/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzLuxHv0WmY83IrSDp2WA1AMfgwrjxR2GQrAYDSjH4e5kZW9UvOBsasucBoy91MnGaYXO4pxdMaBWSrmJqyQn92Piu2xGrqJvmaLWZ0BzeQ4dteiKu4M4nrs1dOn-3JGE-yLIjtduyFQK-bNPiRzRgSdMXxblWFRFixY5gaCz2jaXtKFSR2D5c__wSsDyl/s733/PQ9.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height100 data-original-width733 height79 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzLuxHv0WmY83IrSDp2WA1AMfgwrjxR2GQrAYDSjH4e5kZW9UvOBsasucBoy91MnGaYXO4pxdMaBWSrmJqyQn92Piu2xGrqJvmaLWZ0BzeQ4dteiKu4M4nrs1dOn-3JGE-yLIjtduyFQK-bNPiRzRgSdMXxblWFRFixY5gaCz2jaXtKFSR2D5c__wSsDyl/w570-h79/PQ9.PNG width570 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Avoid concatenating % around unescaped strings directly in SQL./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4) Binary/large objects/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Always bind as parameters (e.g., bytea in Postgres, VARBINARY in SQL Server). Do not hex‑encode/concat into SQL./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>5) Date/Time & locale issues/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Let the driver handle conversions, bind native datetime objects rather than formatting strings./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>6) Boolean & numeric types/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Bind with the correct types to avoid implicit casts or index misses./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Batching and bulk operations/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Parameterized statements shine for batch inserts/updates:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Python + execute_values (psycopg2.extras)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>span stylefont-size: large;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz9tP8RXrJaVKJfQUGMgTkAcPoaLIfMMqsLoXQiRNs59AC8AtJh-yYu416gWjkl9FvmWVNJ6wtq_ZAPnAQTp0Pa7we5uX4LjooNi33lpbGdAIwzw_Z1zDQx-E4wVF4E7DE5qTjYguiaOT8swqUrL0BYCPCuo5JAGWuP3VKOpzB7EN7y6ALesHroFePABTu/s734/PQ10.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height216 data-original-width734 height169 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz9tP8RXrJaVKJfQUGMgTkAcPoaLIfMMqsLoXQiRNs59AC8AtJh-yYu416gWjkl9FvmWVNJ6wtq_ZAPnAQTp0Pa7we5uX4LjooNi33lpbGdAIwzw_Z1zDQx-E4wVF4E7DE5qTjYguiaOT8swqUrL0BYCPCuo5JAGWuP3VKOpzB7EN7y6ALesHroFePABTu/w578-h169/PQ10.PNG width578 />/a>/span>/div>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>JDBC batch/span>/b>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYiGtS-yfOIEyN8rmqz4LwLxatZOzyMgRRGZbkSV6JAPdXIqLm1xyAuKbLRBjLwcKUNzgRJTcS0JPeTbF7770sQwV1kkvxxB0PlUrO79Bqw4s3zkXOixGl0xMAnAXGUqQt-vE_eoQ6rp0ptHv-W989waiWRivUPM7X2xhm1fyExDJVuJAP9yz9bBpCrrjJ/s738/PQ11.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height241 data-original-width738 height193 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYiGtS-yfOIEyN8rmqz4LwLxatZOzyMgRRGZbkSV6JAPdXIqLm1xyAuKbLRBjLwcKUNzgRJTcS0JPeTbF7770sQwV1kkvxxB0PlUrO79Bqw4s3zkXOixGl0xMAnAXGUqQt-vE_eoQ6rp0ptHv-W989waiWRivUPM7X2xhm1fyExDJVuJAP9yz9bBpCrrjJ/w594-h193/PQ11.PNG width594 />/a>/div>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>ORM considerations/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Most ORMs (e.g., Entity Framework, Hibernate, SQLAlchemy, Django ORM) use parameterized queries under the hood. Still:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prefer ORM query APIs over string concatenation./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>When falling back to raw SQL, use the driver’s parameter syntax rather than building strings./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Why escaping alone isn’t enough/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Manual escaping/sanitizing is fragile and driver‑specific (quoting rules vary by DB, collation, encoding, etc.). Parameterization delegates encoding and quoting to the driver and database, which implement the correct, context‑aware rules. It’s safer and more maintainable./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Quick checklist (best practices)/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Always bind untrusted input as parameters./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reuse prepared statements for repeated queries (loops/batches)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Use correct data types; let the driver serialize them./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Whitelist identifiers when you must build a dynamic SQL structure./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Use array parameters or expanded placeholders for IN lists./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Bind patterns for LIKE/ILIKE; don’t concat % dangerously./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prefer ORM query builders; use raw SQL with parameters when necessary./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Avoid building SQL with string concatenation—even if you “escape”./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Mini FAQ/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Q: Are stored procedures “safe” by themselves?/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A: Only if parameters are used inside them. If the procedure concatenates user input into dynamic SQL, it can still be vulnerable./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Q: Do parameterized queries always improve performance?/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A: Often, yes, due to plan reuse and reduced parse overhead. But monitor for edge cases (e.g., parameter‑sensitive plans) and adjust./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Q: Can I parameterize everything?/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A: You can parameterize values, not keywords/identifiers. Use allow‑lists for identifiers./span>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/parameterized-queries-explained.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/parameterized-queries-explained.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-07T08:00:00-05:00>8:00 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/parameterized-queries-explained.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Friday, February 6, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content3931817468168346340 itemproppostId/>a name3931817468168346340>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/kubernetes-explained-complete-guide-to.html>Kubernetes Explained: The Complete Guide to How It Works and Why It Matters/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-3931817468168346340 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;>What Is Kubernetes?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes, often abbreviated as K8s, is an open‑source container-orchestration platform that automates the deployment, scaling, and management of containerized applications. It originated from Google’s experience running large‑scale containerized workloads and is now maintained by the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF). /span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes has become the industry standard for running modern cloud‑native applications across both cloud and on‑prem environments, powering microservices, distributed systems, and large enterprise deployments./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Kubernetes Exists/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Containers solved the “works on my machine” problem by packaging an application and all its dependencies into a portable unit. But as organizations adopted microservices and scaled to hundreds or thousands of containers, new challenges emerged: ensuring availability, handling failures, balancing loads, automating deployments, and updating applications safely./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes solves these challenges by serving as the central control system for containerized workloads, deciding where, when, and how containers run. /span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Core Kubernetes Concepts/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Cluster/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A cluster is the collection of all machines (nodes) where Kubernetes runs. It is the environment in which all workloads, services, and control‑plane components operate. /span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Nodes/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Nodes are the worker machines, physical or virtual, that run pods, the smallest deployable unit in Kubernetes. Each node contains:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubelet (node agent)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Container runtime/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Networking components/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Pods/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A pod is a small group of one or more tightly coupled containers that share:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Networking (same IP)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Storage volumes/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Pods are created, scheduled, and terminated by Kubernetes as needed. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Control Plane Components/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The control plane is the “brain” of Kubernetes and includes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>API Server: /b>Central access point for commands (via kubectl)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Scheduler: /b>Decides which node a pod runs on/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Controllers: /b>Maintain cluster state, handle rollouts and failures/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>etcd:/b> Distributed key‑value store containing cluster state/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>What Kubernetes Automatically Handles/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes provides a wide range of automations that make it powerful for managing large-scale systems:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Deployment Automation/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Deploy new applications or new versions with controlled, automated rollouts and rollbacks./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;> 2. Scaling/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes scales applications up or down automatically based on resource usage or custom metrics./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>3. Self‑Healing/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes detects and replaces failing containers and reschedules pods on healthy nodes when needed./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b> 4. Service Discovery & Load Balancing/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes automatically assigns DNS names or IP addresses and ensures traffic is balanced across pods./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>5. Storage Orchestration/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Automatically mounts persistent storage, local, cloud, or networked, into containers./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>6. Configuration & Secret Management/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Securely manages sensitive credentials, configuration files, and environment variables./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes Architecture (High-Level)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Control Plane/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>API Server/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Scheduler/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Controller Manager/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>etcd (state database)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Worker Nodes/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubelet (agent)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Kube‑proxy (networking)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Container Runtime (e.g., containerd, CRI‑O)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This distributed architecture enables high availability, resilience, and scalability across clusters of nodes. /span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes Use Cases/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes is used across industries for:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Microservices Architectures/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Manages complex distributed systems with many independent services./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Cloud‑Native Applications/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Run workloads consistently across hybrid or multi‑cloud environments./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>3. CI/CD Pipelines/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Automates testing, deployment, and rollback processes./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4. Web Applications/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Ensures availability, scaling, and cost‑efficient resource usage./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Kubernetes Is So Popular/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Portability/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Runs anywhere, on-prem, multi-cloud, edge./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Scalability/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Handles small projects to massive enterprise deployments./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Resilience/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Self-healing and automated failover reduce downtime./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Strong Ecosystem/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Large community, CNCF support, and compatibility with major cloud providers./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Summary/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes is a powerful platform that:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Automates the deployment, scaling, and management of containers/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Provides sophisticated capabilities like load balancing, service discovery, and self‑healing/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Offers a flexible, cloud‑agnostic architecture/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Is essential for microservices, cloud‑native systems, and large distributed applications/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>With its mature ecosystem and robust automation, Kubernetes has become the foundation of modern infrastructure./span>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/kubernetes-explained-complete-guide-to.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/kubernetes-explained-complete-guide-to.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-06T08:00:00-05:00>8:00 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/kubernetes-explained-complete-guide-to.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Thursday, February 5, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta contenthttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9lMYxxlasRRrUXcOcFwTCDVL0zJfABeC9ECtjfZuCaCbI57qTB993ltw-4AwV7suCG1G5XX0_OOxO9A6Uo2p9rrERA9ZXbT1ZrzE83qwgfenSh27pv2g_CrP6gkxzZ3zkv47D_B1B-GF7hfaRHjhaiZ3e_3LFS5Td_O6egHFyBk3BvgSggGqRgA6_AJVA/w601-h118/Credential%20Replay.PNG itempropimage_url/>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content2153081785176638350 itemproppostId/>a name2153081785176638350>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/credential-replay-attacks-how-they-work.html>Credential Replay Attacks: How They Work, Why They’re Dangerous, and How to Stop Them/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-2153081785176638350 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What Is Credential Replay?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Credential replay is a cyberattack in which an attacker reuses valid authentication credentials (such as usernames, passwords, session tokens, Kerberos tickets, or hashes) that were stolen or intercepted from a legitimate user./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The attacker doesn’t need to crack or guess the credentials—they simply replay them to impersonate the user and access systems./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>It’s a subset of authentication replay attacks./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How Credential Replay Works (Step-by-Step)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Credential Theft/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The attacker first obtains credentials through methods like:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Phishing/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Malware (keyloggers, infostealers)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Network sniffing (e.g., stealing NTLM hashes over SMB)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Database breaches/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Harvesting browser-saved passwords/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Stealing authentication cookies/session tokens/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Attacker Replays the Credentials/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The attacker sends the stolen credential material directly to the authentication system:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reuses the password to log in/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Sends the token to claim identity/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Uses a Windows NTLM hash as-is (Pass-the-Hash)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Uses a stolen Kerberos Ticket (Pass-the-Ticket)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. System Accepts the Replayed Credentials/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Because the credentials are valid and not yet expired or revoked, the server believes the attacker is the legitimate user./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4. Attacker Gains Access/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Once authenticated, the attacker can:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Access email/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Connect to VPN/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Log in to cloud services/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Escalate privileges/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Move laterally across the network/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Common Types of Credential Replay Attacks/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Password Replay/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>An attacker uses a stolen password to log in anywhere the victim uses it./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Example:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A password stolen from a Shopify breach later works at the victim’s bank login./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This is why password reuse is so dangerous./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Token or Cookie Replay/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Attackers copy valid session cookies or authentication tokens and reuse them./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Examples:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>JWT token theft/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>OAuth token replay/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Session cookie hijacking/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>(classic “pass-the-cookie” attack)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>If a session cookie is copied, the attacker can log in without even needing a password./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Pass-the-Hash (PtH)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A Windows attack where an attacker uses NTLM password hashes to authenticate without knowing the password./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They simply use the hash itself as the password./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Pass-the-Ticket (PtT)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>An attacker steals Kerberos tickets (TGT or service tickets) and reuses them to impersonate users in Active Directory environments./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>5. Replay in Network Protocols/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Protocols without proper challenge/response mechanisms (older systems, IoT, legacy devices) are vulnerable to simple replay of sniffed login packets./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Credential Replay Is So Dangerous/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Bypasses MFA (if token/session is stolen instead of password)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Hard to detect – logs show “legitimate” login/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Fast – attackers can immediately act/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Works across many services if passwords are reused/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Enables privilege escalation (especially in Windows environments)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Works even if passwords are strong (in hash/ticket-based attacks)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How Credential Replay Differs From Brute Force/span>/b>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9lMYxxlasRRrUXcOcFwTCDVL0zJfABeC9ECtjfZuCaCbI57qTB993ltw-4AwV7suCG1G5XX0_OOxO9A6Uo2p9rrERA9ZXbT1ZrzE83qwgfenSh27pv2g_CrP6gkxzZ3zkv47D_B1B-GF7hfaRHjhaiZ3e_3LFS5Td_O6egHFyBk3BvgSggGqRgA6_AJVA/s1235/Credential%20Replay.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>span stylefont-size: large;>img border0 data-original-height242 data-original-width1235 height118 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9lMYxxlasRRrUXcOcFwTCDVL0zJfABeC9ECtjfZuCaCbI57qTB993ltw-4AwV7suCG1G5XX0_OOxO9A6Uo2p9rrERA9ZXbT1ZrzE83qwgfenSh27pv2g_CrP6gkxzZ3zkv47D_B1B-GF7hfaRHjhaiZ3e_3LFS5Td_O6egHFyBk3BvgSggGqRgA6_AJVA/w601-h118/Credential%20Replay.PNG width601 />/span>/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Credential replay is typically more precise and quieter than brute force./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How to Prevent Credential Replay/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Breaks password replay/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Does not stop token/cookie replay unless combined with other protections/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Token Binding / Session Hardening/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Bind tokens to:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>the device/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>the browser/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>or the specific TLS channel/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This prevents attackers from reusing tokens on another device./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Use Modern Authentication (OAuth, FIDO2, Kerberos Armoring)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Avoids sending reusable credentials across the network./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Zero-Trust Access Controls/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Every access attempt is verified:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Identity/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Device identity/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Risk score/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Geolocation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Behavior/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This stops attackers, even when they have stolen credentials./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>5. Disable NTLM Where Possible/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This removes pass-the-hash and SMB relay attack vectors./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>6. Monitor for Anomalies/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Detect unusual:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>logins from new locations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>impossible travel events/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>logins outside normal times/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>new devices/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>lateral movement patterns/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>7. Endpoint Hardening/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Prevent tools like Mimikatz from extracting credentials./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Summary/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Credential replay is an attack where an adversary uses valid stolen credentials, passwords, tokens, hashes, or tickets to impersonate legitimate users. It’s dangerous because it often bypasses detection and can circumvent protections such as password strength requirements./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Preventing it requires:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>MFA + token binding/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Modern authentication protocols/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Device identity/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Network segmentation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Monitoring & zero-trust principles/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken 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This is designed to help the exam candidate to understand the concepts, rather than trust a brain dump. CHECK OUT THE BLOG INDEXES!!!/span>/p>/div>/div>/div>/div>/div>/div>div classheader-cap-bottom cap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>/header>div classtabs-outer>div classtabs-cap-top cap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left tabs-fauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right tabs-fauxborder-right>/div>div classregion-inner tabs-inner>div classtabs section idcrosscol nameCross-Column>div classwidget Image data-version1 idImage1>h2>CompTIA Security+ Exam Notes/h2>div classwidget-content>img altCompTIA Security+ Exam Notes height319 idImage1_img srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWSLWMt8lDlnZFSxi05YpLD5LDay9dGZXrzjjZbG8glBi6Ro4VZvIlFdxjR1o1uP4E-Oiq1GrDdAMJIOMxxo-fPynf4cSK_B6IvUGW3GUmlWHqQ2EzHjuSY96pQ0QFmM3fjGtK39MIUu9c/s653/01-Comp-IA-Security-SY0-501.webp width653/>br/>span classcaption>Let Us Help You Pass/span>/div>div classclear>/div>/div>/div>div classtabs no-items section idcrosscol-overflow nameCross-Column 2>/div>/div>/div>div classtabs-cap-bottom cap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>div classmain-outer>div classmain-cap-top cap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left main-fauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right main-fauxborder-right>/div>div classregion-inner main-inner>div classcolumns fauxcolumns>div classfauxcolumn-outer fauxcolumn-center-outer>div classcap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right>/div>div classfauxcolumn-inner>/div>/div>div classcap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>div classfauxcolumn-outer fauxcolumn-left-outer>div classcap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right>/div>div classfauxcolumn-inner>/div>/div>div classcap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>div classfauxcolumn-outer fauxcolumn-right-outer>div classcap-top>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>div classfauxborder-left>div classfauxborder-right>/div>div classfauxcolumn-inner>/div>/div>div classcap-bottom>div classcap-left>/div>div classcap-right>/div>/div>/div>!-- corrects IE6 width calculation -->div classcolumns-inner>div classcolumn-center-outer>div classcolumn-center-inner>div classmain section idmain nameMain>div classwidget Blog data-version1 idBlog1>div classblog-posts hfeed> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Wednesday, February 11, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content3272552191415976054 itemproppostId/>a name3272552191415976054>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/inside-lsass-dumping-defenders-guide-to.html>Inside LSASS Dumping: A Defender’s Guide to Protecting Windows Credentials/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-3272552191415976054 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What is LSASS and “LSASS dumping”?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LSASS (Local Security Authority Subsystem Service) is the Windows process that enforces local security policy and manages authentication. After a user logs on, credential material (e.g., NTLM password hashes, Kerberos tickets, and, in some configurations, plaintext) resides in LSASS memory for the session. LSASS dumping is the act of extracting that in‑memory credential material (typically after an attacker already has admin/SYSTEM privileges) to facilitate account impersonation, privilege escalation, and lateral movement. /span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Why attackers target LSASS/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>High payoff:/b> A single host may contain credentials for privileged users (e.g., domain admins), enabling rapid lateral movement and full domain compromise. /span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Pervasive technique: /b>LSASS dumping is among the most prevalent credential‑access techniques seen across APT and cybercrime operations, including ransomware campaigns./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Windows internals:/b> Because LSASS legitimately stores authentication artifacts during normal operation, an attacker with sufficient privileges can attempt to extract them unless the host is hardened./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Common approaches (high‑level only)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Attackers can attempt in‑memory access to LSASS or create memory dumps for offline parsing with credential‑theft utilities. Variants include abusing signed/LOLBAS binaries (living‑off‑the‑land), leveraging error‑reporting paths, or deploying custom tooling to evade EDR. (Deliberately omitting command‑level detail.)/span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Operational prerequisites for an attacker/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Local admin/SYSTEM privileges are typically required to read LSASS memory, so LSASS dumping is usually a post‑compromise technique./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Misconfigurations (e.g., legacy WDigest settings that allow plaintext caching) can worsen the impact if present./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Detection: what to watch for/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Aim to detect both attempted access to LSASS and the downstream use of stolen material./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Process and handle‑access telemetry/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Alerts when non‑system processes open LSASS with suspicious access rights (e.g., memory‑read/duplicate handle). Modern EDRs and Sysmon telemetry are key here./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Anomalous child processes / LOLBAS abuse/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Signed Windows binaries or admin tools unexpectedly interacting with LSASS (e.g., “living‑off‑the‑land” patterns)./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Dump‑artifact forensics/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Appearance of crash/dump files in temp or system folders, or unusual Windows Error Reporting activity tied to LSASS./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Post‑dump behavior/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Sudden spikes in Kerberos ticket requests, pass‑the‑hash attempts, or lateral RDP/SMB authentication using previously unseen accounts or workstations./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Microsoft reports that modern endpoint solutions (e.g., Defender for Endpoint) include attack-surface reduction (ASR) rules and detections specifically designed to block or alert on LSASS credential theft, with demonstrated effectiveness in independent tests./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Mitigation: harden, limit, and monitor/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Goal: /b>Make LSASS hard to access, reduce the value of what’s inside it, and ensure attempts are noisy./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>1. Enable LSASS protection features/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>LSA Protection / RunAsPPL (Protected Process Light): /b>Launches LSASS as a protected process, allowing only trusted, signed code with appropriate privileges to interact with it. microsoft.com/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Credential Guard: /b>Uses virtualization‑based security (VBS) to isolate derived credentials, preventing many in‑memory theft scenarios. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Apply Attack Surface Reduction (ASR) and EDR controls/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Use ASR rules to block credential stealing from LSASS, and ensure EDR policies alert on suspicious handle access and dump patterns. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Reduce credential exposure/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Disable/avoid WDigest plaintext credential caching where possible; ensure modern auth packages and patches are in place./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prefer Kerberos and constrained delegation; avoid unnecessary credential caching on servers that host many privileged logons./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Least privilege & endpoint hygiene/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Minimize local admin rights; use Privileged Access Workstations (PAWs) and Just‑Enough/Just‑In‑Time Administration to limit where high‑value credentials ever land. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>5. Memory‑dump and handle‑access controls/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Remove “Debug programs” rights from standard administrators; restrict who can create process dumps; monitor/alert on dump‑tool invocation and WerFault anomalies./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>6. Network & identity protections/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Detect reuse of stolen credentials (pass‑the‑hash/ticket) via anomalous authentication patterns and enforce MFA where feasible to blunt the theft value./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Incident response: if LSASS dumping is suspected/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Isolate the endpoint/b> from the network to stop lateral movement./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Acquire volatile evidence /b>(carefully, to avoid destroying forensics) and collect EDR/Sysmon logs around the time of suspected access./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Hunt for credential reuse/b> across the domain (failed logons, unusual source hosts, ticket anomalies)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Rotate sensitive credentials/b> (admin/service accounts), re‑issue Kerberos tickets (e.g., KRB TGT resets per policy), and reimage if necessary./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Retrospective detection:/b> Search for the same TTPs fleet‑wide; many attackers execute this technique on multiple hosts./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Legal and ethical note/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Attempting to access LSASS memory on systems you do not own, or without explicit, written authorization, is illegal and unethical. All guidance here is intended solely to help defenders understand, detect, and mitigate this technique./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Quick FAQ/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Is LSASS dumping the same as pass‑the‑hash?/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>No. LSASS dumping is a collection technique (to obtain secrets). Pass‑the‑hash/ticket are use techniques that may follow./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Does enabling Credential Guard stop all LSASS dumping?/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>It significantly reduces exposure by isolating secrets, but you should still enable RunAsPPL, ASR, and robust EDR detection; defense‑in‑depth is essential./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Where else do Windows credentials live?/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Beyond LSASS memory, credentials/hashes can exist in the SAM, NTDS.dit (on DCs), LSA Secrets, cached domain credentials, and Credential Manager, each with its own risks and defenses. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/inside-lsass-dumping-defenders-guide-to.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/inside-lsass-dumping-defenders-guide-to.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-11T08:46:00-05:00>8:46 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/inside-lsass-dumping-defenders-guide-to.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3272552191415976054&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div>div classinline-ad>script async srchttps://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?clientca-pub-9372303920595375&hostca-host-pub-1556223355139109 crossoriginanonymous>/script>!-- syo-501_main_Blog1_1x1_as -->ins classadsbygoogle styledisplay:block data-ad-clientca-pub-9372303920595375 data-ad-hostca-host-pub-1556223355139109 data-ad-slot8940545355 data-ad-formatauto data-full-width-responsivetrue>/ins>script>(adsbygoogle window.adsbygoogle || ).push({});/script>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Tuesday, February 10, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content2488857925771861582 itemproppostId/>a name2488857925771861582>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/disa-stigs-explained-structure.html>DISA STIGs Explained: Structure, Compliance, and Best Practices/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-2488857925771861582 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What Are STIGs?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Security Technical Implementation Guides (STIGs) are mandatory cybersecurity configuration standards developed by the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) for securing information systems within the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). They define how to harden operating systems, software, network devices, and other IT components to reduce vulnerabilities and ensure compliance with federal security requirements./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>These guides are published and maintained on the official DoD Cyber Exchange, where they serve as the authoritative source of DoD security configuration requirements./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Purpose of STIGs/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs exist to:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Harden systems/b> by defining secure configuration settings (e.g., permissions, services, encryption)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Reduce configuration‑based vulnerabilities/b> that attackers exploit./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Align systems with federal security frameworks/b>, such as NIST SP 800‑53 and the Risk Management Framework (RMF)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Support Authorization to Operate (ATO) /b>decisions within DoD environments./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs are mandated by DoD cybersecurity policy, meaning all DoD information systems must implement approved security configuration guidelines./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>What Do STIGs Contain?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A STIG is specific to a product and version and includes all security requirements applicable to that technology, as defined by DoD baselines./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Each STIG typically includes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Configuration requirements/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Technical settings (e.g., registry edits, service configurations)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Security controls mapped to NIST controls and CCIs/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Vulnerability severity categories (CAT I, CAT II, CAT III)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Verification and remediation instructions/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs cover a wide range of technologies, including:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Operating systems (Windows, Linux, UNIX)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Applications and middleware (web servers, databases)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Network devices (routers, switches, firewalls)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Mobile devices (smartphones, tablets)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>There are over 500 STIGs across all technology types./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Who Must Use STIGs?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIG compliance is mandatory for:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>DoD agencies/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Defense contractors/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Vendors handling DoD data/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizations connected to DoDIN (DoD Information Networks)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Many federal agencies and private companies also adopt STIGs as benchmarks for secure configuration, even when not required./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why STIGs Are Important/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs provide:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Enhanced Security/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They reduce the attack surface and protect systems from unauthorized access and cyberattacks./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Standardization/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They enforce consistent security settings across all systems and technologies./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>3. Regulatory Compliance/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They help meet requirements under DoD policies and federal security standards such as FISMA./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4. Risk Mitigation/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Hardening configurations significantly reduces vulnerability exposure./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>STIG Levels and Categories/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIG findings are categorized by severity:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>CAT I (Critical): Immediate risk; must be fixed urgently/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>CAT II (Medium): Weakens security posture/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>CAT III (Low): Enhances security but is not critical/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>(These categories are standard across DISA STIGs.)/span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs in DevSecOps and Modern DoD Environments/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>In modern b>DoD DevSecOps pipelines,/b> STIGs are applied continuously during development, testing, and deployment to ensure secure software delivery./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs are embedded in the b>DoD Enterprise DevSecOps Reference Design/b> and form part of secure-by-design software factories./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>STIG Compliance Process/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A typical compliance process includes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Identify applicable STIGs for the system/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Scan and assess current configurations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prioritize remediation based on severity and system impact/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Apply required settings/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Document compliance for audits and ATO/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Continuously monitor and update as new STIG releases appear/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Tools that support this include:/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>DISA STIG Viewer/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>SCAP Compliance Checker/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Anchore Enterprise/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Examples of STIG Use Cases/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Securing a Web Server/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Applying web server STIGs ensures strong permissions, disables unnecessary services, and hardens authentication settings./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Hardening Network Devices/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs guide secure configurations for routers, switches, and firewalls, improving access control and reducing vulnerabilities./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>In Summary/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>STIGs are highly detailed, mandatory DoD cybersecurity configuration guidelines that:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Define secure system configurations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reduce vulnerabilities and improve resilience/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Ensure compliance with federal and DoD policies/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Standardize cybersecurity across organizations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Support secure software development and operations/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Whether youre in government, defense contracting, or a private organization seeking strong security baselines, STIGs are a foundational tool for system hardening and risk reduction./span>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/disa-stigs-explained-structure.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/disa-stigs-explained-structure.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-10T08:00:00-05:00>8:00 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/disa-stigs-explained-structure.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID2488857925771861582&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Monday, February 9, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content8421145666776053987 itemproppostId/>a name8421145666776053987>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/capability-maturity-model-integration.html>Capability Maturity Model Integration Explained: Principles, Practices, and Real‑World Value/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-8421145666776053987 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What Is Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI)?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI)/b> is a comprehensive process improvement framework that organizations use to assess, develop, and optimize their capabilities across areas such as software engineering, systems engineering, service delivery, and product development. It helps organizations standardize processes, improve quality, reduce risk, and enhance performance./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) and is administered today by the CMMI Institute, a subsidiary of ISACA. It is widely used and even required in many U.S. government software contracts./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Core Principles of CMMI/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>According to SixSigma.us and CMMI guidance, CMMI is built around three foundational principles:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Process Standardization/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Measurement-Based Improvement/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizational Alignment/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>These ensure organizations establish consistent, repeatable, measurable processes./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI Structure: Components of the Model/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI is composed of several connected elements used to assess and improve processes:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Process Areas (PAs)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>These represent high‑level domains of organizational performance, such as:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Project Management/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Engineering/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Support/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Goals and Practices/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Each process area includes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Specific Goals (SG) and Specific Practices (SP) — unique to each area/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Generic Goals (GG) and Generic Practices (GP) — applied across all areas/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Work Products and Sub-Practices/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>These show evidence that a practice has been successfully implemented./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4. CMMI Representations/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizations can adopt CMMI in two ways:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Staged Representation:/span>/b>/li>ul>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Follows a fixed path of maturity levels/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Enables benchmarking of organizations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Used in formal CMMI appraisals/span>/li>/ul>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Continuous Representation:/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Focuses on improving individual process areas/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Allows more flexibility/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>The Five CMMI Maturity Levels/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI defines five maturity levels that describe the evolution of process capability in an organization:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Level 1 – Initial/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Processes are unpredictable, poorly controlled, and reactive./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Level 2 – Managed/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Processes are planned, documented, and managed at the project level./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Level 3 – Defined/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Processes are standardized and integrated across the entire organization./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Level 4 – Quantitatively Managed/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Processes are measured and controlled using quantitative data./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Level 5 – Optimizing/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Focus on continuous process improvement using innovative methods and root‑cause analysis./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI Constellations (Model Types)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Historically, CMMI offered three constellations:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI for Development (CMMI‑DEV)/b>/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI for Services (CMMI‑SVC)/b>/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI for Acquisition (CMMI‑ACQ)/b>/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>In CMMI Version 2.0, these were merged into a unified model./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Practice Areas in CMMI Version 3.0 (2023)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The latest model includes extensive Practice Areas (PAs) such as:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Configuration Management/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Data Quality/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Governance/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Incident Resolution/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizational Training/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Planning/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Objectives and Benefits of CMMI/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>According to GeeksforGeeks and SixSigma.us, CMMI helps organizations:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improve product and service quality/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Fulfill customer needs/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Enhance investor value/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Increase market competitiveness/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reduce risk across processes/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Organizations Implement CMMI/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizations adopt CMMI to:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Strengthen process discipline/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improve predictability of project outcomes/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reduce defects and cycle times/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Standardize practices across teams/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improve performance metrics and governance/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Support compliance with government or industry requirements/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI Appraisal and Certification/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Organizations undergo SCAMPI-style appraisals to achieve an official maturity level rating, enabling public recognition and government contracting eligibility./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Evolution and Version History/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Key versions:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI V1.3 (2010)/b> – widely used baseline model/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI V2.0 (2018) /b>– modernization and consolidation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>CMMI V3.0 (2023) /b>– latest release with expanded practice areas/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Summary/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>CMMI is a globally recognized framework that offers organizations a structured, measurable path to improve processes, enhance product quality, reduce risk, and achieve operational excellence across development, services, and acquisition functions. It provides both a roadmap and a benchmark for process maturity, making it one of the most widely used models in modern industry./span>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/capability-maturity-model-integration.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/capability-maturity-model-integration.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-09T08:38:00-05:00>8:38 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/capability-maturity-model-integration.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID8421145666776053987&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Sunday, February 8, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content7188042918148997666 itemproppostId/>a name7188042918148997666>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/large-language-models-explained.html>Large Language Models Explained: The Technology Behind Modern AI/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-7188042918148997666 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What Is a Large Language Model?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A Large Language Model (LLM) is an AI system designed to understand, generate, and manipulate human language. It learns patterns from massive amounts of text and uses probability to predict what words, and even ideas, should come next in a sentence./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Think of it like:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A super‑advanced autocomplete system that has learned from almost the entire internet, books, articles, and more./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Examples of LLMs include GPT‑4/5, Claude, LLaMA, Gemini, etc./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Key Components of a Large Language Model/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>i>1. A Transformer Architecture/i>/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Most modern LLMs use the Transformer architecture (developed by Google in 2017)./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Transformers introduced two key concepts:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>a. Attention Mechanism/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This allows the model to consider all words in a sentence simultaneously and determine which parts matter most./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Example:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>In the sentence “The cat that chased the mouse was hungry,”/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The word “was” refers to “cat”, not “mouse.”/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Attention helps the model understand that relationship./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>b. Parallel Processing/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Unlike older models, transformers process all words simultaneously, making training orders of magnitude faster./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Training on Massive Text Data/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The “large” in LLM refers to:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Large dataset/b> (web pages, books, code, etc.)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Large number of parameters /b>(weights)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>A large computation is needed for training/b>/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Modern LLMs may have tens or hundreds of billions of parameters./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>What are parameters?/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They’re numerical values the model adjusts during training, ike knobs on a huge control panel, to better predict the next word./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Tokens, Not Words/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLMs don’t read full words. They read tokens, which may be:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>A full word (“cat”)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>A partial word (“ing”)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Even punctuation/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This helps the model handle multiple languages, slang, and new words./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How LLMs Work (Step-by-Step)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Step 1: Input → Tokenization/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Your text is split into tokens./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Step 2: Embeddings/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Each token is converted into a mathematical vector (a list of numbers representing meaning)./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Step 3: Processing with Attention Layers/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The model looks at all tokens and computes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Context/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Relationships/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Meaning/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This happens across dozens or hundreds of layers./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Step 4: Prediction/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLM predicts the probability of each possible next token and chooses one./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Then it repeats this process, token by token, to generate full sentences./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How Are LLMs Trained?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>1. Pretraining (unsupervised learning)/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The model reads huge amounts of text and learns to predict missing or next tokens./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>It learns:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Grammar/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Facts/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reasoning patterns/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Writing styles/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Coding patterns/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Fine‑tuning/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>After pretraining, the model is adjusted for specific purposes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Chatting/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Coding/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Online safety/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Translation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Math/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Customer support/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Humans rank model outputs, and the model learns which responses humans prefer./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This makes the LLM:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>More helpful/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Less toxic/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>More aligned with human expectations/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>What Can LLMs Do?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLMs can:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Answer questions/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Summarize long documents/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Translate languages/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Write essays, emails, and articles/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Generate or explain code/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reason about problems/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Analyze data (with tools)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Their power comes from pattern recognition, not human understanding, but the patterns are so rich that the results feel intelligent./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>What LLMs Cannot Do (Important!)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLMs:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Do not understand the world like humans/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Do not have consciousness or beliefs/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>May hallucinate false information/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Can misinterpret ambiguous prompts/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Don’t access the internet unless specifically connected to a search tool/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Are LLMs a Big Deal?/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>LLMs are transforming:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Work automation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Programming/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Education/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Research/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Creative industries/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Customer service/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Knowledge work in general/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/large-language-models-explained.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/large-language-models-explained.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-08T08:00:00-05:00>8:00 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/large-language-models-explained.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID7188042918148997666&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Saturday, February 7, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta contenthttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcEDIayqOWpTJikKr6MceIJfiasyVc4FEgAVK0Stmh9g44HwPJ_QzJPesSCM8nasVrVVvu1SxWk1V-zFogjIjXedRtxtmGlS40ChyphenhyphenSp4C6RXYv90p8r0hUPkSFiKRZog5rf6zaGFR2NO2akmdczCopz-5tz_IER2_CyiMh8EGZqPIPccuePoE4VF3NdYR0/w548-h104/PQ1.PNG itempropimage_url/>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content1604745994327931250 itemproppostId/>a name1604745994327931250>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/parameterized-queries-explained.html>Parameterized Queries Explained: Preventing SQL Injection the Right Way/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-1604745994327931250 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What are parameterized queries?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Parameterized queries (a.k.a. prepared statements with bound parameters) are SQL statements where data values are kept separate from the SQL code. Instead of concatenating user input into a query string, you write the SQL with placeholders and pass the actual values as parameters. The database driver sends the SQL and the parameter values to the database separately (or in distinct protocol messages), so the values are never interpreted as SQL code./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Why this matters:/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prevents SQL injection by design, because user input can’t change the query’s structure./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improves performance (often) via plan caching / server‑side prepared plans./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Improves correctness & type safety: parameters are strongly typed and validated by the driver/DB./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Enables batching/bulk operations efficiently./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>How they work (conceptual flow)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Most drivers/databases follow a variant ofb> Parse → Bind → Execute:/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Prepare/Parse:/b> The database parses the SQL with placeholders (e.g., SELECT … WHERE id ?), validates syntax, and (optionally) creates/ caches an execution plan./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Bind: /b>Your program provides parameter values (e.g., id 42). The driver encodes them with their types (e.g., integer, text)./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>3. Execute: /b>The DB executes the already‑parsed plan with those bound values./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Placeholders differ by driver/DB:/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>? — JDBC, ODBC, SQLite, MySQL (client libs), etc./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>$1, $2, … — PostgreSQL (libpq, many drivers)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>@name — SQL Server (ADO.NET), some other drivers./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>:name — Oracle, many ORMs./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>The unsafe way (for contrast)/b>/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcEDIayqOWpTJikKr6MceIJfiasyVc4FEgAVK0Stmh9g44HwPJ_QzJPesSCM8nasVrVVvu1SxWk1V-zFogjIjXedRtxtmGlS40ChyphenhyphenSp4C6RXYv90p8r0hUPkSFiKRZog5rf6zaGFR2NO2akmdczCopz-5tz_IER2_CyiMh8EGZqPIPccuePoE4VF3NdYR0/s743/PQ1.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height141 data-original-width743 height104 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcEDIayqOWpTJikKr6MceIJfiasyVc4FEgAVK0Stmh9g44HwPJ_QzJPesSCM8nasVrVVvu1SxWk1V-zFogjIjXedRtxtmGlS40ChyphenhyphenSp4C6RXYv90p8r0hUPkSFiKRZog5rf6zaGFR2NO2akmdczCopz-5tz_IER2_CyiMh8EGZqPIPccuePoE4VF3NdYR0/w548-h104/PQ1.PNG width548 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The user‑supplied text is part of the SQL, so malicious characters can break out of the string and alter the query structure./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>The safe way (parameterized)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>i>Python + PostgreSQL (psycopg2)/i>/b>/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlTPELnYg4BlA2jA0-5g-JUNB7UJopfpHU7Kk-KvzbHVcDfi69Bgap2k3f9s5X_vtJxiCrcln0fNoNayMrOqrj25mmBL6Ofq45k0ufhqqsuj9RRWrWhXM-QwwUkv0mMtiUosYCXy7GEWkWJOIJszbBWNkK902o8jRA73lcKubQm3MVxn1txRqIhqwrm4pN/s743/PQ2.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height222 data-original-width743 height166 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlTPELnYg4BlA2jA0-5g-JUNB7UJopfpHU7Kk-KvzbHVcDfi69Bgap2k3f9s5X_vtJxiCrcln0fNoNayMrOqrj25mmBL6Ofq45k0ufhqqsuj9RRWrWhXM-QwwUkv0mMtiUosYCXy7GEWkWJOIJszbBWNkK902o8jRA73lcKubQm3MVxn1txRqIhqwrm4pN/w554-h166/PQ2.PNG width554 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Node.js + PostgreSQL (pg)/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh58qqzZ8ccEiE1Je2YgAt75cEj9eDBMPpjcORKL6otZlqePKF5u2T5Z0Rx5LIIygBF2JmXjZ6wFrbMYrZ_u9kLy7Vq2zDGkaluknehrxQEDhrYCQPtaNkNKqo9wjOGt6ogiccSBKCzVn6xFzQuRGhRJMBRBNClBFXVp6woWh6bm0sXftOK434awPuJ2TCR/s737/pq3.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height184 data-original-width737 height139 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh58qqzZ8ccEiE1Je2YgAt75cEj9eDBMPpjcORKL6otZlqePKF5u2T5Z0Rx5LIIygBF2JmXjZ6wFrbMYrZ_u9kLy7Vq2zDGkaluknehrxQEDhrYCQPtaNkNKqo9wjOGt6ogiccSBKCzVn6xFzQuRGhRJMBRBNClBFXVp6woWh6bm0sXftOK434awPuJ2TCR/w555-h139/pq3.PNG width555 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>C# + SQL Server (ADO.NET)/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbl6GxqfyOgbJ6RXq6CA31IcCiQIJ8ryZpeSLynRwU6NlzA3yiZ0bqr73kc-e_vJ64F-aBOe_0qSuiX1gvq5VkQ_DuIwEg513g_NYoSCqFhMSW5iJ4F5dLIzYcn1JKpoAx7xtykoujaKrB5ucWn7WwTUtxlJ54yENDsLxEdtgO9PR-X0gwbPyueHu5AgpK/s737/PQ4.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height241 data-original-width737 height186 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbl6GxqfyOgbJ6RXq6CA31IcCiQIJ8ryZpeSLynRwU6NlzA3yiZ0bqr73kc-e_vJ64F-aBOe_0qSuiX1gvq5VkQ_DuIwEg513g_NYoSCqFhMSW5iJ4F5dLIzYcn1JKpoAx7xtykoujaKrB5ucWn7WwTUtxlJ54yENDsLxEdtgO9PR-X0gwbPyueHu5AgpK/w566-h186/PQ4.PNG width566 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Java + JDBC/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz1eOsJqH8Iz4refsiFlkPzkm9eQgkYtCldONVJoyB9D7eUITGDen64zOBBmK5VdGYUu3QDDlXTMhE8uKCYWjNxeHrMAL-LZqKJEq8gBVlxPgPDH3eMxVMNGjFFVGevgFXhWJbTEBU-TXCMnR-ySmoIhdwFK8ELrOSOBl7GFhBV8LV0kAUflclLZGgYC_C/s735/PQ5.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height218 data-original-width735 height170 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz1eOsJqH8Iz4refsiFlkPzkm9eQgkYtCldONVJoyB9D7eUITGDen64zOBBmK5VdGYUu3QDDlXTMhE8uKCYWjNxeHrMAL-LZqKJEq8gBVlxPgPDH3eMxVMNGjFFVGevgFXhWJbTEBU-TXCMnR-ySmoIhdwFK8ELrOSOBl7GFhBV8LV0kAUflclLZGgYC_C/w574-h170/PQ5.PNG width574 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>PHP + PDO (for completeness)/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDhxw14Xu4hnwy4Go7lZq_RBb1vydGC0biFfdf38uSgqwZFKEPPbTFu-uOQhu0jgk5zrhRWqs-E21VjWFhQj56P3RSmnBgsMXh3MSwGmjd4qN-BjHvmSdQNwJem12KTtRsRdJXTTzWZjhyphenhyphenQdUs7woXVroFt_72EbafP0K8nPaPF9EOjKWoev4Udauctv89/s732/PQ6.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height103 data-original-width732 height81 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDhxw14Xu4hnwy4Go7lZq_RBb1vydGC0biFfdf38uSgqwZFKEPPbTFu-uOQhu0jgk5zrhRWqs-E21VjWFhQj56P3RSmnBgsMXh3MSwGmjd4qN-BjHvmSdQNwJem12KTtRsRdJXTTzWZjhyphenhyphenQdUs7woXVroFt_72EbafP0K8nPaPF9EOjKWoev4Udauctv89/w578-h81/PQ6.PNG width578 />/a>/div>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Parameter styles at a glance/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Positional (?): /b>order matters; common in JDBC/ODBC/MySQL/SQLite./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Dollar‑positional ($1): /b>common in PostgreSQL drivers./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Named (@p, :name):/b> common in SQL Server/Oracle/various ORMs; improves readability./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Performance notes/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Server‑side prepared statements can reuse the parsed plan across executions, reducing CPU overhead on the DB./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reusing a prepared statement inside loops (e.g., bulk inserts) can yield significant throughput gains./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Some drivers auto‑prepare after N executions; others require you to opt in (e.g., prepare / PREPARE)./span>/li>ul>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Caveat: /b>In certain DBs (notably PostgreSQL), parameterized plans can sometimes yield suboptimal plans when data distributions are skewed, because the planner sees parameters rather than constants. b>Techniques: /b>auto_explain, prepared_statement_cache, or leaving a query unprepared if it’s highly selective and rarely repeated./span>/li>/ul>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Common pitfalls & how to handle them/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1) Dynamic SQL structure (table/column names)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Parameters can only replace values, not SQL identifiers (table/column names) or keywords./span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Do:/b> Use a whitelist (allow‑list) and interpolate validated identifiers yourself./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Don’t:/b> Concatenate unchecked user input into identifiers./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTjp2QZfCanyQHtYmldIlqSettc_ij2WjNO_n6KEB_kqWsPUr3WXH6PIZhDE_LcHwzsquMlC5SMSDu8BRr_tTfTRwc92ZzoIkDfhaOvewVHjpS00QJyHhrUlY0fG_ldqnkDsa5n-dq-Gq35KbaslOCgOIX1bUcenASgZJUqapRUe47Vyhy9a-To7LqKsxR/s736/PQ7.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height192 data-original-width736 height145 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTjp2QZfCanyQHtYmldIlqSettc_ij2WjNO_n6KEB_kqWsPUr3WXH6PIZhDE_LcHwzsquMlC5SMSDu8BRr_tTfTRwc92ZzoIkDfhaOvewVHjpS00QJyHhrUlY0fG_ldqnkDsa5n-dq-Gq35KbaslOCgOIX1bUcenASgZJUqapRUe47Vyhy9a-To7LqKsxR/w561-h145/PQ7.PNG width561 />/a>/div>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2) IN lists/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>You can’t pass a single parameter as an entire IN (...) list in many drivers. Use:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Array parameters (PostgreSQL):/b> WHERE id ANY($1::int)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Programmatically expand placeholders:/b> WHERE id IN (?, ?, ?) (and bind 3 values)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhokKZfbmxgD7xtWuEKdibzNWT621ZbA1o5gTRaKjAi3N6cDAtYtCEDYm6D0R6cbqqJqqtr7zyFoLuds9wTqd87S9uTqaFinChNxnDe5ens9xGQG6dv3_Boy-V8WfcLhI91wu5-sH8tIReDOEIgqtfIeYUZ0A_jyTI-WmF6jcfCszRQ-KknjSi3DVoo-zOm/s744/PQ8.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height119 data-original-width744 height88 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhokKZfbmxgD7xtWuEKdibzNWT621ZbA1o5gTRaKjAi3N6cDAtYtCEDYm6D0R6cbqqJqqtr7zyFoLuds9wTqd87S9uTqaFinChNxnDe5ens9xGQG6dv3_Boy-V8WfcLhI91wu5-sH8tIReDOEIgqtfIeYUZ0A_jyTI-WmF6jcfCszRQ-KknjSi3DVoo-zOm/w556-h88/PQ8.PNG width556 />/a>/div>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3) LIKE patterns/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>If you need wildcards, build the pattern in code but still bind it:/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzLuxHv0WmY83IrSDp2WA1AMfgwrjxR2GQrAYDSjH4e5kZW9UvOBsasucBoy91MnGaYXO4pxdMaBWSrmJqyQn92Piu2xGrqJvmaLWZ0BzeQ4dteiKu4M4nrs1dOn-3JGE-yLIjtduyFQK-bNPiRzRgSdMXxblWFRFixY5gaCz2jaXtKFSR2D5c__wSsDyl/s733/PQ9.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height100 data-original-width733 height79 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzLuxHv0WmY83IrSDp2WA1AMfgwrjxR2GQrAYDSjH4e5kZW9UvOBsasucBoy91MnGaYXO4pxdMaBWSrmJqyQn92Piu2xGrqJvmaLWZ0BzeQ4dteiKu4M4nrs1dOn-3JGE-yLIjtduyFQK-bNPiRzRgSdMXxblWFRFixY5gaCz2jaXtKFSR2D5c__wSsDyl/w570-h79/PQ9.PNG width570 />/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Avoid concatenating % around unescaped strings directly in SQL./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4) Binary/large objects/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Always bind as parameters (e.g., bytea in Postgres, VARBINARY in SQL Server). Do not hex‑encode/concat into SQL./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>5) Date/Time & locale issues/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Let the driver handle conversions, bind native datetime objects rather than formatting strings./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>6) Boolean & numeric types/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Bind with the correct types to avoid implicit casts or index misses./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Batching and bulk operations/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Parameterized statements shine for batch inserts/updates:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Python + execute_values (psycopg2.extras)/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>/span>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>span stylefont-size: large;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz9tP8RXrJaVKJfQUGMgTkAcPoaLIfMMqsLoXQiRNs59AC8AtJh-yYu416gWjkl9FvmWVNJ6wtq_ZAPnAQTp0Pa7we5uX4LjooNi33lpbGdAIwzw_Z1zDQx-E4wVF4E7DE5qTjYguiaOT8swqUrL0BYCPCuo5JAGWuP3VKOpzB7EN7y6ALesHroFePABTu/s734/PQ10.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height216 data-original-width734 height169 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz9tP8RXrJaVKJfQUGMgTkAcPoaLIfMMqsLoXQiRNs59AC8AtJh-yYu416gWjkl9FvmWVNJ6wtq_ZAPnAQTp0Pa7we5uX4LjooNi33lpbGdAIwzw_Z1zDQx-E4wVF4E7DE5qTjYguiaOT8swqUrL0BYCPCuo5JAGWuP3VKOpzB7EN7y6ALesHroFePABTu/w578-h169/PQ10.PNG width578 />/a>/span>/div>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>JDBC batch/span>/b>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYiGtS-yfOIEyN8rmqz4LwLxatZOzyMgRRGZbkSV6JAPdXIqLm1xyAuKbLRBjLwcKUNzgRJTcS0JPeTbF7770sQwV1kkvxxB0PlUrO79Bqw4s3zkXOixGl0xMAnAXGUqQt-vE_eoQ6rp0ptHv-W989waiWRivUPM7X2xhm1fyExDJVuJAP9yz9bBpCrrjJ/s738/PQ11.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>img border0 data-original-height241 data-original-width738 height193 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYiGtS-yfOIEyN8rmqz4LwLxatZOzyMgRRGZbkSV6JAPdXIqLm1xyAuKbLRBjLwcKUNzgRJTcS0JPeTbF7770sQwV1kkvxxB0PlUrO79Bqw4s3zkXOixGl0xMAnAXGUqQt-vE_eoQ6rp0ptHv-W989waiWRivUPM7X2xhm1fyExDJVuJAP9yz9bBpCrrjJ/w594-h193/PQ11.PNG width594 />/a>/div>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>ORM considerations/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Most ORMs (e.g., Entity Framework, Hibernate, SQLAlchemy, Django ORM) use parameterized queries under the hood. Still:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prefer ORM query APIs over string concatenation./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>When falling back to raw SQL, use the driver’s parameter syntax rather than building strings./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Why escaping alone isn’t enough/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Manual escaping/sanitizing is fragile and driver‑specific (quoting rules vary by DB, collation, encoding, etc.). Parameterization delegates encoding and quoting to the driver and database, which implement the correct, context‑aware rules. It’s safer and more maintainable./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Quick checklist (best practices)/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Always bind untrusted input as parameters./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reuse prepared statements for repeated queries (loops/batches)./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Use correct data types; let the driver serialize them./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Whitelist identifiers when you must build a dynamic SQL structure./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Use array parameters or expanded placeholders for IN lists./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Bind patterns for LIKE/ILIKE; don’t concat % dangerously./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Prefer ORM query builders; use raw SQL with parameters when necessary./span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Avoid building SQL with string concatenation—even if you “escape”./span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Mini FAQ/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Q: Are stored procedures “safe” by themselves?/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A: Only if parameters are used inside them. If the procedure concatenates user input into dynamic SQL, it can still be vulnerable./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Q: Do parameterized queries always improve performance?/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A: Often, yes, due to plan reuse and reduced parse overhead. But monitor for edge cases (e.g., parameter‑sensitive plans) and adjust./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Q: Can I parameterize everything?/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A: You can parameterize values, not keywords/identifiers. Use allow‑lists for identifiers./span>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/parameterized-queries-explained.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/parameterized-queries-explained.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-07T08:00:00-05:00>8:00 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/parameterized-queries-explained.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID1604745994327931250&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Friday, February 6, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content3931817468168346340 itemproppostId/>a name3931817468168346340>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/kubernetes-explained-complete-guide-to.html>Kubernetes Explained: The Complete Guide to How It Works and Why It Matters/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-3931817468168346340 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;>What Is Kubernetes?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes, often abbreviated as K8s, is an open‑source container-orchestration platform that automates the deployment, scaling, and management of containerized applications. It originated from Google’s experience running large‑scale containerized workloads and is now maintained by the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF). /span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes has become the industry standard for running modern cloud‑native applications across both cloud and on‑prem environments, powering microservices, distributed systems, and large enterprise deployments./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Kubernetes Exists/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Containers solved the “works on my machine” problem by packaging an application and all its dependencies into a portable unit. But as organizations adopted microservices and scaled to hundreds or thousands of containers, new challenges emerged: ensuring availability, handling failures, balancing loads, automating deployments, and updating applications safely./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes solves these challenges by serving as the central control system for containerized workloads, deciding where, when, and how containers run. /span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Core Kubernetes Concepts/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Cluster/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A cluster is the collection of all machines (nodes) where Kubernetes runs. It is the environment in which all workloads, services, and control‑plane components operate. /span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Nodes/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Nodes are the worker machines, physical or virtual, that run pods, the smallest deployable unit in Kubernetes. Each node contains:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubelet (node agent)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Container runtime/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Networking components/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Pods/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A pod is a small group of one or more tightly coupled containers that share:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Networking (same IP)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Storage volumes/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Pods are created, scheduled, and terminated by Kubernetes as needed. /span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Control Plane Components/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The control plane is the “brain” of Kubernetes and includes:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>API Server: /b>Central access point for commands (via kubectl)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Scheduler: /b>Decides which node a pod runs on/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Controllers: /b>Maintain cluster state, handle rollouts and failures/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>b>etcd:/b> Distributed key‑value store containing cluster state/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>What Kubernetes Automatically Handles/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes provides a wide range of automations that make it powerful for managing large-scale systems:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Deployment Automation/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Deploy new applications or new versions with controlled, automated rollouts and rollbacks./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;> 2. Scaling/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes scales applications up or down automatically based on resource usage or custom metrics./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>3. Self‑Healing/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes detects and replaces failing containers and reschedules pods on healthy nodes when needed./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b> 4. Service Discovery & Load Balancing/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes automatically assigns DNS names or IP addresses and ensures traffic is balanced across pods./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>5. Storage Orchestration/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Automatically mounts persistent storage, local, cloud, or networked, into containers./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>6. Configuration & Secret Management/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Securely manages sensitive credentials, configuration files, and environment variables./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes Architecture (High-Level)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Control Plane/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>API Server/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Scheduler/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Controller Manager/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>etcd (state database)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Worker Nodes/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubelet (agent)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Kube‑proxy (networking)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Container Runtime (e.g., containerd, CRI‑O)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This distributed architecture enables high availability, resilience, and scalability across clusters of nodes. /span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes Use Cases/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes is used across industries for:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Microservices Architectures/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Manages complex distributed systems with many independent services./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>2. Cloud‑Native Applications/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Run workloads consistently across hybrid or multi‑cloud environments./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>3. CI/CD Pipelines/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Automates testing, deployment, and rollback processes./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4. Web Applications/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Ensures availability, scaling, and cost‑efficient resource usage./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Kubernetes Is So Popular/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Portability/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Runs anywhere, on-prem, multi-cloud, edge./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Scalability/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Handles small projects to massive enterprise deployments./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Resilience/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Self-healing and automated failover reduce downtime./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>Strong Ecosystem/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Large community, CNCF support, and compatibility with major cloud providers./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Summary/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Kubernetes is a powerful platform that:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Automates the deployment, scaling, and management of containers/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Provides sophisticated capabilities like load balancing, service discovery, and self‑healing/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Offers a flexible, cloud‑agnostic architecture/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Is essential for microservices, cloud‑native systems, and large distributed applications/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>With its mature ecosystem and robust automation, Kubernetes has become the foundation of modern infrastructure./span>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken Reaser/span>/a>/span>/span>span classpost-timestamp>atmeta contenthttp://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/kubernetes-explained-complete-guide-to.html itempropurl/>a classtimestamp-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/kubernetes-explained-complete-guide-to.html relbookmark titlepermanent link>abbr classpublished itempropdatePublished title2026-02-06T08:00:00-05:00>8:00 AM/abbr>/a>/span>span classpost-comment-link>a classcomment-link hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/kubernetes-explained-complete-guide-to.html#comment-form onclick>No comments: /a>/span>span classpost-icons>/span>div classpost-share-buttons goog-inline-block>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-email hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targetemail target_blank titleEmail This>span classshare-button-link-text>Email This/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-blog hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targetblog onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height270,width475); return false; target_blank titleBlogThis!>span classshare-button-link-text>BlogThis!/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-twitter hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targettwitter target_blank titleShare to X>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to X/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-facebook hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targetfacebook onclickwindow.open(this.href, _blank, height430,width640); return false; target_blank titleShare to Facebook>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Facebook/span>/a>a classgoog-inline-block share-button sb-pinterest hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/share-post.g?blogID3311861741042666555&postID3931817468168346340&targetpinterest target_blank titleShare to Pinterest>span classshare-button-link-text>Share to Pinterest/span>/a>/div>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-2>span classpost-labels>/span>/div>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-3>span classpost-location>/span>/div>/div>/div>/div> /div>/div> div classdate-outer> h2 classdate-header>span>Thursday, February 5, 2026/span>/h2> div classdate-posts> div classpost-outer>div classpost hentry uncustomized-post-template itempropblogPost itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/BlogPosting>meta contenthttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9lMYxxlasRRrUXcOcFwTCDVL0zJfABeC9ECtjfZuCaCbI57qTB993ltw-4AwV7suCG1G5XX0_OOxO9A6Uo2p9rrERA9ZXbT1ZrzE83qwgfenSh27pv2g_CrP6gkxzZ3zkv47D_B1B-GF7hfaRHjhaiZ3e_3LFS5Td_O6egHFyBk3BvgSggGqRgA6_AJVA/w601-h118/Credential%20Replay.PNG itempropimage_url/>meta content3311861741042666555 itempropblogId/>meta content2153081785176638350 itemproppostId/>a name2153081785176638350>/a>h3 classpost-title entry-title itempropname>a hrefhttps://www.comptiaexamprep.com/2026/02/credential-replay-attacks-how-they-work.html>Credential Replay Attacks: How They Work, Why They’re Dangerous, and How to Stop Them/a>/h3>div classpost-header>div classpost-header-line-1>/div>/div>div classpost-body entry-content idpost-body-2153081785176638350 itempropdescription articleBody>h1 styletext-align: center;>span stylecolor: #2b00fe;> What Is Credential Replay?/span>/h1>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Credential replay is a cyberattack in which an attacker reuses valid authentication credentials (such as usernames, passwords, session tokens, Kerberos tickets, or hashes) that were stolen or intercepted from a legitimate user./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The attacker doesn’t need to crack or guess the credentials—they simply replay them to impersonate the user and access systems./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>It’s a subset of authentication replay attacks./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How Credential Replay Works (Step-by-Step)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Credential Theft/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The attacker first obtains credentials through methods like:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Phishing/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Malware (keyloggers, infostealers)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Network sniffing (e.g., stealing NTLM hashes over SMB)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Database breaches/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Harvesting browser-saved passwords/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Stealing authentication cookies/session tokens/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Attacker Replays the Credentials/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>The attacker sends the stolen credential material directly to the authentication system:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Reuses the password to log in/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Sends the token to claim identity/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Uses a Windows NTLM hash as-is (Pass-the-Hash)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Uses a stolen Kerberos Ticket (Pass-the-Ticket)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. System Accepts the Replayed Credentials/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Because the credentials are valid and not yet expired or revoked, the server believes the attacker is the legitimate user./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>4. Attacker Gains Access/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Once authenticated, the attacker can:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Access email/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Connect to VPN/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Log in to cloud services/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Escalate privileges/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Move laterally across the network/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Common Types of Credential Replay Attacks/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Password Replay/b>/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>An attacker uses a stolen password to log in anywhere the victim uses it./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Example:/span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A password stolen from a Shopify breach later works at the victim’s bank login./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This is why password reuse is so dangerous./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Token or Cookie Replay/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Attackers copy valid session cookies or authentication tokens and reuse them./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Examples:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>JWT token theft/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>OAuth token replay/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Session cookie hijacking/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>(classic “pass-the-cookie” attack)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>If a session cookie is copied, the attacker can log in without even needing a password./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Pass-the-Hash (PtH)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>A Windows attack where an attacker uses NTLM password hashes to authenticate without knowing the password./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>They simply use the hash itself as the password./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Pass-the-Ticket (PtT)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>An attacker steals Kerberos tickets (TGT or service tickets) and reuses them to impersonate users in Active Directory environments./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>5. Replay in Network Protocols/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Protocols without proper challenge/response mechanisms (older systems, IoT, legacy devices) are vulnerable to simple replay of sniffed login packets./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Why Credential Replay Is So Dangerous/span>/b>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Bypasses MFA (if token/session is stolen instead of password)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Hard to detect – logs show “legitimate” login/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Fast – attackers can immediately act/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Works across many services if passwords are reused/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Enables privilege escalation (especially in Windows environments)/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Works even if passwords are strong (in hash/ticket-based attacks)/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How Credential Replay Differs From Brute Force/span>/b>/p>div classseparator styleclear: both; text-align: left;>a hrefhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9lMYxxlasRRrUXcOcFwTCDVL0zJfABeC9ECtjfZuCaCbI57qTB993ltw-4AwV7suCG1G5XX0_OOxO9A6Uo2p9rrERA9ZXbT1ZrzE83qwgfenSh27pv2g_CrP6gkxzZ3zkv47D_B1B-GF7hfaRHjhaiZ3e_3LFS5Td_O6egHFyBk3BvgSggGqRgA6_AJVA/s1235/Credential%20Replay.PNG imageanchor1 stylemargin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;>span stylefont-size: large;>img border0 data-original-height242 data-original-width1235 height118 srchttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9lMYxxlasRRrUXcOcFwTCDVL0zJfABeC9ECtjfZuCaCbI57qTB993ltw-4AwV7suCG1G5XX0_OOxO9A6Uo2p9rrERA9ZXbT1ZrzE83qwgfenSh27pv2g_CrP6gkxzZ3zkv47D_B1B-GF7hfaRHjhaiZ3e_3LFS5Td_O6egHFyBk3BvgSggGqRgA6_AJVA/w601-h118/Credential%20Replay.PNG width601 />/span>/a>/div>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Credential replay is typically more precise and quieter than brute force./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>How to Prevent Credential Replay/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>b>1. Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)/b>/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Breaks password replay/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Does not stop token/cookie replay unless combined with other protections/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>2. Token Binding / Session Hardening/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Bind tokens to:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>the device/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>the browser/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>or the specific TLS channel/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This prevents attackers from reusing tokens on another device./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>3. Use Modern Authentication (OAuth, FIDO2, Kerberos Armoring)/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Avoids sending reusable credentials across the network./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>4. Zero-Trust Access Controls/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Every access attempt is verified:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Identity/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Device identity/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Risk score/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Geolocation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Behavior/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This stops attackers, even when they have stolen credentials./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>5. Disable NTLM Where Possible/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>This removes pass-the-hash and SMB relay attack vectors./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>6. Monitor for Anomalies/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Detect unusual:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>logins from new locations/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>impossible travel events/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>logins outside normal times/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>new devices/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>lateral movement patterns/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>7. Endpoint Hardening/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Prevent tools like Mimikatz from extracting credentials./span>/p>p>b>span stylefont-size: large;>Summary/span>/b>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Credential replay is an attack where an adversary uses valid stolen credentials, passwords, tokens, hashes, or tickets to impersonate legitimate users. It’s dangerous because it often bypasses detection and can circumvent protections such as password strength requirements./span>/p>p>span stylefont-size: large;>Preventing it requires:/span>/p>p>/p>ul styletext-align: left;>li>span stylefont-size: large;>MFA + token binding/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Modern authentication protocols/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Device identity/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Network segmentation/span>/li>li>span stylefont-size: large;>Monitoring & zero-trust principles/span>/li>/ul>p>/p>div styleclear: both;>/div>/div>div classpost-footer>div classpost-footer-line post-footer-line-1>span classpost-author vcard>Posted byspan classfn itempropauthor itemscopeitemscope itemtypehttp://schema.org/Person>meta contenthttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 itempropurl/>a classg-profile hrefhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/03554365125784414374 relauthor titleauthor profile>span itempropname>Ken 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